Emmanuelle Charpentier and Jennifer Doudna at the Pacific Crest Trail’s End (13)
Thoughts on Gene Editing
Emmanuelle Charpentier
This is visiting my story’s formal endpoint, the near present in a narrative of how nature made intelligence from the Big Bounce on, or from the first DNA. I will below take the Pacific Crest Trail as a model for the length of the trip from DNA to the title ladies. I consider their Gene Editing as a pivotal point of our times, an emblem for it, with the promise over the long haul of the creation of flabbergasting new DNA. Having taken here my narrative to the present, I am left on going forward, with some extrapolations into a future. I will take such extrapolations on occasion. But of course, I can roll parts of the history back from here, which is what I have newly decided on. Spool them back and see where they originated. Let’s see what happens.
𓆤
Jennifer Doudna
A step into the deep:
For me, the title ladies have defined the present in its most momentous way. Their seminal finding in 2012 made more easily possible the design of DNA by adapting bacterial immune responses to viral attack. It is an utterly clever way for bacters to defend themselves, and of the ladies to illuminate the bacters’ cleverness. I sense here the beginning of a new world. On this procedure we will be increasingly capable of weeding out hereditary disease and perhaps defend against cancer amongst others. Maybe there is a way to near immortality?
But for real sci-fi type adventure, consider futuristic designing of bio-intelligence, say based on enhancing Sapiens but also on enhanced Neanderthal or their brethren. We will get to know ourselves so much more in the process. Who are these brethren dolls and guys anyway and who are we to begin with? And then, aren’t we prone to expand this to any sentient being with potential of gaining potential intelligence on genetic enhancement? Take cockatoos for instance for humor champs, or chicken to pick spiritual kernels amongst the undistinguished. I am reminded of the scene in Star Wars with the bar, where the most unlikely alien type characters meet in good cheer, if perhaps masking their questionable intents.
CRISPR-Cas9 was adapted from a naturally occurring genome editing system that bacteria use as an immune defense against viruses. When infected, bacteria capture small pieces of the viruses' DNA and insert them into their own DNA. This way they create segments known as CRISPR arrays. The CRISPR arrays allow the bacteria to keep molecular memory of the viruses. When the viruses attack again, the bacteria produce RNA segments from the CRISPR arrays that attach to specific regions of the viruses' DNA. The bacteria then use Cas9 or similar enzymes to cut the DNA apart. This brutality disables the virus and enables the bacter. In a similar vein, genetic engineering may eventually either enable or disable us. It will depend on our cleverness. Let’s keep this in mind but for the time being, let’s cheer on acetobacter, making yoghurt, defended by its evolutionary skill to survive in a virus infected world!
𓆤
A history backwards:
Before I go to talk about the title ladies though, I want to show more generally what I intend to embark on. I began in the first essays with hints at mechanisms involved in the unfolding of the universe from Big Bounce states on, that involved inhomogeneous cooling. In this state events are based on entropy increases for the possible but, within those possible ways, nature choses on reaction speed (kinetics) and employs catalysis or dissipative structuring to make transitions go fast. This can create complexity such as ice flowers on windowpanes. I had in mind to present material piecemeal in this long, long history until I would show at the end how we had become remarkably catalyzing and dissipative. But now I have decided to mix it up even more, to make the journey topsy turvy, and show near the beginning the present with a slight of hand. Here it is, and there we have it. And now I am left to answer, or better ask you, how did we ever get here?
But at the same time an opportunity opens in my narrative, and I can go back step by step and point at how we got on by rules germane to any natural unfolding: make it faster. You can then check whether the rule works, and if not, why not.
I said, nature selects the faster amongst the possible, even if the choice itself may look slow and frozen at times, it may still be the fastest. So, when you go back, perhaps the strange sense in a movie going backwards helps illuminate better. You may then find what things got unfrozen and how, by going forward, and how they freeze going backwards. So, first I will walk the Pacific Crest trail in a model of time to metaphorically show you the unfolding towards the fast, in a fast way. And that will then motivate me to take the trail back in more detail later. Let’s see how that goes.
Starting with a focus, say at the Bounce, a wrong impression of my aims could be created. I am not single mindedly after the so far “unprovable” Bounce (we can’t so far experiment at the required temperatures). I like to speculate on it though and go on to anywhere in between. How different is it there? This selecting reminds me of my experience, together with my family, to hike the Pacific Crest trail piecemeal. It can give you a new perspective of your location in it. I didn’t have the time and determination to do it in one sweep to begin with. And so it happened that we often found ourselves together with long distance hikers with their eyes aglow at the wonder or glazed over and tranquilized by the distance. We would have gone north or south for some stretch and then have branched away at some point to explore the local beauty and not get the glaze.
And that, together with the branching, is my ambition here too, in the writing. The trail is usually taken to the north from the Mexican border near Campo over early spring meadows and through oak groves in a mountainous or mesa-type landscape. There is an air of music to it, festive like some Baroque perhaps, I think of Vivaldi; The Seasons might be appropriate, or some spirited mariachis? And that bucolic part would paradoxically correspond to the first creation of DNA, say in dark deep-sea vents, more like a Beethoven, portentous, rumbling and heroic. But if I am starting in detail there, then you may think again I am vested in Mexican border or the corresponding DNA states only. Wouldn’t be surprising as I with my family have a place there with view of a branch of the trail, cutting the ledge of a playful looking outcrop that we have called Mt Mozart. But no, the whole trip is what I am vested in, even including Bounce and galaxies but especially the last somber northern meadows of the trail at the other border. And what I want to do here is to walk with you northward or forward in mind first, sketching it out, and for detail walk it more backwards in coming essays.
𓆤
The Pacific Crest trail forward first:
The Pacific Crest trail ends formally at the Canadian border. This border is a metaphor for the present, or the title ladies. There you cannot cross into Canada (without permit), just as we cannot cross into the future (wish I could get a permit for that one). But you can extrapolate into it, at your choice deep into the correspondence of the Canadian Rockies or far beyond for points within a future. We have 4p9 (4Anglo billion) years ahead on earth, or a continuation of trail the same length that we came on. Just think of the momentous changes from Mt Rainier on (see below); and what to expect now from a continuation? It would take us deep into Alaska in the easy part of the answer. And eventually, we don’t know how long we could last in space and how that would end. Something big has started; or is starting at these borders.
The Pacific Crest trail is formally a little over 4p6m (4x10^6m or 4 000km) long. I picked it up as interesting for model building, as the origin of DNA happened roughly 4p9ya (4x10^9 years ago, or 4Anglo billion). Therefore, in a model 1 000 years since DNA corresponds to 1meter trail; or a million years corresponds to a kilometer. You need no calculator.
If you want to expand a trail south to the Big Bounce, then that gets you back in time some 13.8p9 years from the present. You would then start somewhere around San Jose, Costa Rica walking north (if you prefer a volcano for the Bounce, then nearby Barva would do). The universe would have cooled to a balmy room temperature at volcano Poas some 15 km north of town. This balm could potentially have supported life. Stars would take their time and come up some 400km further north in Nicaragua, exemplified say by the night lights of Managua.
But back to the Pacific Crest Trail. The first major event in life on earth, after DNA, is beginning at 3p9 ya (3Anglo billion) as the Great Oxidation Extinction Event due to massive photosynthesis of single cells. This arrival of oxygen, and the subsequent extinction of that part of life that cannot exist in its presence and screams say for ammonia, is 1000km to the north of the trail beginning (or 3 000km from the end); it starts around Mt Whitney and extends smack into the central Sierra with its Evolution Valley, celebrating pioneers through dedicating mountains to them. one of them, of course, is Mt Darwin. This is the landscape in the model for the new oxygen breathers.
Very primitive sex appears to be some 2p9ya in single-celled protists or bacteria. This event is located far north near volcanic Mt Lassen. Exchange of DNA parts lent versatility, and after the Cambrian development of feelings, the search for another DNA to mix with, let lonely DNA impart a lot of drive on animals for the mixing of their generating information.
New data suggest an earlier beginning, than assumed, of the DNA guided synthesis for the flabbergasting architecture of multi-cellular life at 1.6p9ya, or near Mt Shasta (within an otherwise boring sequence of billion years, in world history, not on the trail). Maybe yet newer finds will place this beginning yet farther to the south. I say this as an example for something where changes in our understanding are anticipated but further accuracy wouldn’t change our perspective much. The upshot is: there are important steps, and they take time. From here on, 3D design with multiple cells will be possible for life and it took to it with a vengeance.
Near 0.6p9ya the earth went through the Snowball- Extinction due to volcanism-dust freezing the earth (with the paradise like thaw of the Ediacaran Recovery of eyeless bottom dwellers). This devastated landscape reminds perhaps of Mt Saint Helens that is roughly at the right location.
Around 0.5p9ya (500 million) the Cambrian is extant with eyes and proto fish as our ancestors, with spine and fins where arms and legs will be. This Cambrian “explosion of life” marks the appearance in the fossil record first of abundant, shell-forming and/or trace-making organisms such as trilobites (their DNA goes extinct in the Permian Extinction). The Cambrian and Ordovician explosions also first evolved DNA, fabricating nervous systems capable of pain and predation-based animal ecosystems. In this sense it can be seen as an origin of unspeakable suffering in higher animals, while it also hones their cybernetic abilities. This extraordinary time is now 500km from the end of trail, or roughly at the Mt Rainier, Seattle’s giant monument. Here at Rainier, life starts in the forms we are more familiar with, it is a sentinel point. Now we are doing business, at Mt Rainier; now evolution has reached the state beyond the boring billions to the point that aliens might show interest. It again took its time.
Near 234km from finish it became famously wet on earth raining sheets per day, much more so than even wet Washington’s Snoqualmie pass can now supply. Remember Northern Exposure, the show that was filmed around there, simulating wet Alaska. But while some places such Kauai’s north are very wet, they offer reprieve. Less so this one, called Carnian Pluvial Event; it lasted for 2 million years with1400mm/year! This wet weather intermezzo for pluviophiles happened as Pangea, the super-continent from pole to pole, began to split.
Trees come into being around 77km off trail’s end (yes at 77p6ya). The beautiful thick forests around Glacier peak mark this on the trail. In another model where you would spend a year on the trail (making 11km per day), this would correspond to Christmas with its trees, a week before New Year as the present.
Within a flora of trees, having sprouted recently in geological times, the saurian exit some 66p6ya (66million years ago) at 66km from the end of trail at the latitude near or somewhat north of volcanic Glacier peak in the North Cascade Park. Roughly from Glacier peak on, our line of mammals takes over bursting into the niche the dinosaurian left unfilled with their exit.
Close to my home at southern California beaches, sediments speak of boars and rats at the strata of my elevation (we live in the pig or rat house so to speak) and camels somewhat lower. In my phantasy I populate the woods of the final stretch of the trail with boars and rats. Wolves and bears will de facto have roamed this northern land for millions of years, slowly changing in appearance as their pearly info strings do, their DNA.
Humans branch from apes around 6p6ya or 6km from trail’s end. Now the plot thickens.
Sapiens speaks accomplished around 100p3ya, or 100m from the end of trail on the woodsy meadows of Frosty Mountain.
Sapiens writes around 4p3ya (4 000ya) or 4m from the finish; Archimedes takes a bath at 2m.
With the Renaissance/Baroque/Modern the focus of most science history is now in centimeters. Galileo is at 40cm, Einstein at 10cm, and the title ladies of 2012 are now having tenth anniversary and so are one centimeter from the finish line.
We have difficulties imagining the next 10cm into the future, although there is no dearth of predictors. My hunch is that the findings of the ladies will have something to do with it.
There is a kid size obelisk with a pointed top there at trail’s end, and our last 50 years are still barely on it in the model, as well as the next 50. Most of what I will be writing about is these last few meters on the meadows of Frosty Mountain, and how they came about in their science correspondences (don’t you fret, I hope to go back then all the way to Costa Rica after all). What process of catalysis made Faraday give us his electricity? On what did he build, what did he shake loose? If nothing else, we may ask: why did it take so long, when nature is supposed to search for the expedient and fast? What are the driving forces and what holds them up? Why did our intrepid hikers have to hike so much until they met people like themselves? Why didn’t it happen right at volcano Poas?
𓆤
Emmanuelle Charpentier and Jennifer Doudna:
How about 2012 then? Emmanuelle Charpentier and Jennifer Doudna employ the weapons of bacters in battling viruses (2020 Nobel). The technique CRISPR (Clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats) allows for a practical genetic modification. There were other such techniques extant, but this is more efficient and straight, eg virus transferal of genetic info suffers the problems with viruses. It looks like a moment for a future of genetic modification.
CRISPR sounds vaguely like scissors and those are an apt metaphor for the intended gene slicing. The age-old breeding project, attempted by humans, is getting gene scissors to do the job more expeditiously if DNA damage can be avoided. A new age of intelligent design is dawning. We will change ourselves, weeding out inheritable disease and tuning up our capabilities. In this sense, science is yet to become fully born. For some years the illustrious team has been referred to as Thelma & Louise, presumably for their pluck.
Emmanuelle Marie Charpentier was born 1968 south of Paris and received a doctorate from Institute Pasteur in 1995. She worked as a postdoctoral fellow at such places as the Rockefeller University in New York and moved to Vienna from 2002 to 2009 with her last appointment at the Max Perutz Laboratories. From there she went to Sweden/Umea university, still having students in Vienna, and finally in 2015 to Berlin/Max Planck.
Charpentier came to be intrigued studying Streptococcus pyogenes, a species of bacteria that causes scarlet fever. In 2006, in Vienna, she and her colleagues discovered a puzzling series of repeating segments. Bacteria defend themselves from viruses by taking out part of their genes. One of her eureka moments had to do with understanding how 2 RNA molecules guide an enzyme to the location to be cut. By 2009 she secured within the university of Vienna her famous gene-slicing patent. She was not offered an opportunity in Vienna though because one doubted the importance of an archaic immune system when all limelight was on the adaptive one.
In 2011, Charpentier recognized the need to collaborate with an RNA expert and when she met Doudna, at a cafe in Puerto Rico in 2011, they immediately started to collaborate on understanding how CRISPR worked. This meeting led to the rewriting of the code of life. Charpentier started publishing her groundbreaking and highly cited work on CRISPR around 2012 in cooperation with Jennifer Doudna. The method they developed involved synthetic "guide RNA" molecules to cut and modify the genome at specified places. Researchers worldwide have now employed this method to edit the DNA of plants and animals. It is now considered one of the most significant discoveries in the history of biology. Now one is testing it as a cure for genetic disorders such as sickle cell disease and hereditary blindness, treat cancer, to create new crops or to bring species back from extinction. In a more fundamental vein one asks which genes are essential to a cell’s survival. They had created programmable genetic scissors.
In a New York Times interview Charpentier states that she willingly turned her life over to science. She speaks of being obsessed. For 25 years, she was a scientific nomad. She was working at nine institutions in five countries, being paid a trifle. In her mid-forties, with her gene-editing discovery, her outward life has now changed. By her accounting it is still monastic, excluding even largely cultural events. But it is now one of large responsibilities and means.
During the critical discoveries she had moved to Umea/Sweden, and her students were still in Vienna. Guiding took place via email in the sense of what experiments had to be done next. Was her mind in Sweden or on the Danube? What place can take credit? What were the institutional weaknesses and errors of judgment that stood in her way?
Jennifer Anne Doudna, born 1964, is Professor at Berkeley. Growing up in Hilo, Hawaii, she was fascinated by the beauty of the island’s exotic plants and animals. Did she know then that she has DNA in her name? She became curios about how nature works, wanting to understand its underlying biological mechanisms. Although at one point, unsure about her capability for science (she considered switching to French), she joined some of the cutting-edge labs. Her research led her to the immunity of Streptococcus bacteria, which allowed attack and replacement of DNA sections.
Doudna earned a Ph.D. from Harvard Medical School in 1989 for studies on the efficiency of a self-replicating catalytic RNA. She then held research fellowships at the Massachusetts General Hospital and in genetics at Harvard Medical School. From 1991 to 1994, she was a Postdoctoral Scholar at the University of Colorado Boulder, switching then as a professor to Yale. In 2002 she accepted a faculty position at Berkeley, joining her husband who was a professor there.
Both Doudna and Charpentier have urged for caution in applying CRISPR. Presently the main interest for the future is in repairing inherited disease. Generally, studies suggest that CRISPR does not cut the genome always cleanly. This can cause considerable damage. As the body repairs the damage, new mutations may be introduced.
𓆤
Thoughts on gene editing:
Through gene research we became intelligent organisms that have learned to read within their own instructions, setting out to change them. Nineteenth- and twentieth-century science and medicine offered a secular conception of fate and choice. Illness would now be related in mechanistic terms. It was no longer an arbitrary response of divine approval or vengeance. Rather it came now as the consequence of exposures and predispositions. Slowly personal choices made their way up the ladder of importance.
In the early decades of the twenty-first century, we are shifting focus again. We are newly beginning to understand such traits as temperament or illness in terms of genes. We are discovering that the influence of genes on our lives is richer, and more unsettling than we had imagined. This idea becomes even more provocatively unnerving as we learn to alter the genome intentionally. This way we are acquiring the ability to influence future fates and choices. The manipulation of the laws of heredity will probably effect more change in human outlook on the world than any other type of making use of knowledge. Even Kepler’s improved heavenly orbits or Newton’s apple didn’t supply anything comparable.
CRISPR has typically been considered for macroscopic tasks: altering mosquitoes so they can’t spread malaria, editing tomatoes so they are more flavorful, or say square in addition for better stacking. But there are also more basic applications along the line of defense of bacters from viruses by turning a bacterium’s machinery against itself, or against viruses that infect human cells. CRISPR promises to be a next step in anti-microbial therapy.
A CRISPR-associated enzyme called Cas9 was used to eliminate a species of Salmonella. Programming the Cas9 to view the bacterium itself as the enemy and force Salmonella to make lethal cuts to its own genome did this. Another CRISPR enzyme, Cas13, could be programmed to detect and kill three different single-stranded RNA viruses that infect human cells: influenza A virus, lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus and vesicular stomatitis virus. In the case of the flu virus, Cas13 reduced its infectiousness by more than 300-fold. Compared to current antiviral drugs, CRISPR has the advantage of being easy to tweak. As a virus evolves and mutates, one can simply change the CRISPR system to readjust. In 2017, Doudna* co-wrote a book, “A Crack in Creation” to describe both the promise and the peril of CRISPR.
Some years ago, the prospect of correcting a single base pair that causes a fatal genetic disease seemed like science fiction. Now the world has changed. One great attraction of CRISPR is that it could be a one-shot affair. You have the treatment, and the gene is fixed for good. Perhaps even more enticing is that the gene-editing does often not have to be particularly efficient to work. As an example, with sickle-cell disease, correcting the mutation in just 5% of a patient’s stem cells would be enough.
Of 2020 other attempts are directed towards arteriosclerosis, sickle-cell hemophilia, some rare genetic heart conditions, inherited childhood blindness, Duchenne muscular dystrophy and neurological genetic conditions such as Huntington’s disease. A process called base editing is used to treat progeria. This devastating condition causes very rapid ageing and eventually death in children born with a mutation to a gene called lamin A. A single base change produces a mutant protein that can damage nearly all the cells in the body. In this case it is necessary to precisely correct the lone rogue base with base editing.
There is also the hope that CRISPR can take on cancer. Our immune system could be boosted by gene-editing. Cancer Immunotherapy could be made more efficient by editing T-cells (a type of white blood cell). On reintroduction to the bloodstream, they can then recognize and attack cancer cells. In fact, the first human trial for Cancer Immunotherapy on that basis happened in China in 2016 and there have been efforts of treating some types of blood and bone cancers this way. One can also use CRISPR to disable cancer cells directly. It is though difficult to get the gene-editing machinery into tumors other than blood cancers (leukemia).
Brain research has recently taken off with a vengeance. Neurons have moved center stage. Here are some tidbits: There are p10 neurons in the brain. A single neuron will connect with p4 other ones. On growing, cells divide for some 40 cell-generations, before attaining the size of the brain. This number then is about 3 orders of magnitude (p3) larger than the world’s population. We have met the critical 40 generations before with the critical number of cancer cell divisions. The corresponding volume of roughly one liter is the one that kills.
The brain is a huge architecture. Neurons form extensions from their roughly spherical shapes that make contact with other cells, forming a web. A spider can serve as a model, its legs are the protrusions that contact other spiders’ legs, and you end up with, not a spider web, but a web of spiders as the brain. Neurons will fire selectively when performing a walk for the organism requesting one. The signals must flow in precise rhythms to be effective in space and time. When they would act all at once, convulsion mayhem would result, as is the case on strychnine poisoning.
Are brains all-important? That depends on context. De-cerebrated animals can survive for years. They will maneuver over their paths for those years but must be fed by hand, as they will not feed on their own. They have lost their cybernator, the ball of electric storms inside their skull.
In a landmark trial, it was shown in2022, that CRISPR can be used to successfully edit genes in the human body. The work involved six patients with a devastating genetic disease called transthyretin amyloidosis. It was published in the New England Journal of Medicine.
Will CRISPR cure aging? A natural version of CRISPR has been adapted for the reprogramming of cellular DNA to rid cells of unfavorable genetic changes. Once perfected, old cells may be rejuvenated and never age again.
After six years of work, to directly correct the mutation in the beta-globin gene responsible for sickle cell disease, experimental treatment of a CRISPR-based therapy has now been approved for clinical trials by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration.
When handled right, CRISPR can be helpful. but it is a technique that still needs study. In some cases, whole chromosomes were deleted.
In a condemned experiment of 2018, a Chinese researcher without medical degree modified the human genome to make 3 babies immune from HIV. Within an inquiry he was found guilty of trespassing protocol and imprisoned. He has just been released from prison in 2022, while the babies state is not fully known. Pictures of the twins Lulu and Nana look ok. There is some indication though that immunity is not complete and not everything has gone according to schedule. It was also suggested that Lulu and Nana may have had their brains altered, since CCR5 is linked to improved memory function in mice, as well as enhanced recovery from strokes in humans. With some luck, Lulu and Nana may have super-brains.
𓆤
Science fiction type scenarios - Homo Emolumetus:
There are stark science fiction type scenarios for the future: the grinding advantageously together of DNA related material, a self-emolument of Sapiens to something of an unheard advanced nature, leaves the future fully open. I depict it here by various forms of my designation of Homo Emolumetus (ground together as CRISPRman in an emolument of alleles). Large parts of humanity that will stay unimproved may perish or become enslaved at the hands of these “ground out” new organisms. They, in turn, may also feud amongst themselves, coming in a broad spectrum of properties to begin with. The choices to be made by these spectrum characters will be largely out of the realm of present tradition and perspective. New concepts like “what needs to be done” may come to govern the depopulation of Amazon and Congo regions for climate amelioration or the eradication of the overpopulated Third World. Emolumetus species have the potential to dwarf any atrocities of our past and open horizons to which we are presently largely blind. Some sort of CRISPRman may of course inhabit various regions of the universe already in various guises, reminding in some fiction, say of Squid or Secretary Birds, and degree of brutality or philosophical mildness.
It is likely that during this century, people will discover how to modify both intelligence and instincts such as aggression. Laws will probably be passed initially against genetic engineering for humans to avoid pain creation. But some people will circumvent them and attempt to improve length of life, memory, or resistance to disease. Questions arise though whether people would risk side effects. It is interesting that some modifications have been sidelined as even a sperm bank in California offering “elite” sperm, such as from Nobel Prize winners, had closed on account of lack of interest. Most parents still hanker for similarity with their children and may not stand for the idea of CRISPRman. In the short run I’d say it could go either way. In the long run we may have another answer ready for Fermi’s question of why we haven’t been contacted by intelligent life: it ruins itself by taking of the fruit of science foolishly.
𓆤
Extrapolations forward and backwards:
We have argued that certain robustness to mutation indicates related evolution paths on different planets. In a wild exaggeration one could anticipate apelike or bird-like organisms as a universal jumping board into high conscious creatures capable of proper science. At this point though, their choices for post or para-evolutionary paths may widely diverge. They will now be more severely dependent on vagaries and circumstances of the moments of choice. Real diversity therefore may set in mainly from a certain brain organization on. Thereafter it may be more catch as catch can with less control by an adverse environment. We have seen similar effects already: there are a limited number of wolf species but an almost unlimited variety of dogs when including the mutts. The invisible hand of evolution at face value doesn't know its left from its right, the good from the bad, and the human from the inanimate. But in the end, in its effects, it does. And this is so, even as evolution, like we through our days, are both riding the back of a proverbial panther. We are only the conduits, not the source; we cannot escape being a teleonomy of energy.
At the end of this essay, we ask what was needed to make the giant step for mankind of CRISPR. The most important thing of course was the two alert ladies, and then the basis of having the DNA’s structure unraveled, so that we would understand its mechanisms. Handling our way back on the Pacific Crest trail so to speak, this is where we will have to go: to two young gentlemen this time.
𓆤
Similar material if in greater detail is given in my book: Beelines from Chemicals to Chemists: Truffle Safari from Light to Life and Teaching of Space-Time, Bell’s Quantum, DNA and CRISPR , Oesterreicher, Johann H - Amazon.com
If you received this by email you are likely subscribed already. Otherwise please consider subscribing for free. Authors need some motivation, so if you like the essay, please click LIKE.